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ANTHOLOGY AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

of humanitarian intent Marines erected 12 refugee tents before nightfall
on 20 April in what was to ultimately become one of the largest resettlement
camps ever built.  Patience and firmness paid off within a few days as the
Iraqi Army issued orders to withdraw.  By nightfall on 23 April, Marines
occupied the key positions and road network around the city.

     MajGen Garner and his JTF-B staff were headquartered along with the
command element of the 24th MEU(SOC) in the deserted headquarters of the Iraqi
44th Infantry Division.  Garner immediately directed the bridge and road
leading from the border to Zakhu to be opened for traffic.  This was
particularly significant as the Habur Bridge at the border would become the
only means by which surface convoys could pass from Turkey into Iraq.

     On 22 April, LtCol Jonathan Thompson, commanding officer, 45th Commando,
Royal Marines (United Kingdom), and LtCol Cees Van Egmond, 1st Air Combat
Group, Royal Netherlands Marines, reported for duty to MajGen Garner, who
placed both units under the tactical control of the 24th MEU(SOC).  With a
total force of 3,400 Marines from three nations, MajGen Garner lost no time in
developing a plan to rid Zakhu of Iraqi oppression.

     Zakhu, a city of 150,000 under normal times, was a ghost town when
coalition forces arrived there on 20 April.  Fewer than 2,000 inhabitants
remained.  Those missing were still in the mountain camps of southern Turkey. 
Their homes had been looted and vandalized by the Iraqi Army, which continued
pillaging local towns and villages as it retreated south.

     Despite agreeing to withdraw his army, Saddam was not about to surrender
Zakhu without a last effort to retain control of the city.  He did so by
ordering 300 "policemen" into Zakhu to maintain law and order and protect
coalition forces from Kurdish rebels.  Clearly, the few residents left in
Zakhu were still being terrorized.  Something had to be done.

     Col Richard Naab, USA, the recently assigned head of the Military
Coordination Committee, met daily with BGen Danoun Nashwan of the Iraqi Army
to explain coalition intent and expectations.  After several meetings, a
demarche was drafted and released on 24 April.  Its key points are listed
below:

     Iraqi armed forces will continue to withdraw to a point 30 kilometers in
all directions from Zakhu (in other words, out of artillery range).

     Iraqi police will be immediately withdrawn from Zakhu.

     Iraq will be allowed no more than 50 uniformed policemen in Zakhu at any
one time.  They would have to be indigenous to the region, carry only one
pistol, and display coalition force identification badges at all times.

     On 26 April coalition forces will enter Zakhu for the purpose of
verifying compliance and would begin to regularly patrol the city.


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ANTHOLOGY AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY


     Coalition forces will establish a security zone complete with checkpoints
within a 30-kilometer radius around Zakhu.  No weapons other than those of
coalition forces will be permitted in the zone.

     No members of the Iraqi Army will be permitted in the security zone--in
or out of uniform--without approval from the Military Coordination Committee.

     Shortly after the issuing of this demarche, the Iraqi police were
observed boarding buses headed south.  While the full impact of the demarche
was being studied by the Iraqis, LtGen Shalikashvili and MajGen Garner lost no
time in directing the 24th MEU(SOC) to establish this security zone, which it
was thought would permit the Kurds to consider coming out of the mountains
without fear.

     During the hours of darkness on 25 April, BLT 2/8 cordoned off the city
from the south, east, and north, while Dutch Marines sealed off the western
approaches and ensured the integrity of the bridges at the border.  British
Royal Marines from 45th Commando, having just arrived from Northern Ireland,
were tasked with patrolling the streets of Zakhu, sending what few Iraqis
remained scurrying for an escape route.  By nightfall on 26 April, Zakhu
enjoyed its first taste of freedom.

     During this time, the resupply effort continued.  On 26 April alone,
HMM-264 delivered 24.5 tons of relief supplies to the refugees.  They were
soon augmented by helicopter assets from other coalition forces that had begun
to arrive in the area, making operational the Combined Service Command (CSC)
at Silopi, Turkey.  Other reinforcements were forthcoming as well.  On the
morning of 27 April, the 3d Battalion, 325th (3/325) Airborne Combat Team,
commanded by LtCol John Abizaid, was placed under the tactical control of the
24th MEU.  The 18th Engineer Brigade, commanded by Col Steven Windsor, USA,
reinforced by Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 133 (SeaBees), also arrived
during this same timeframe, providing much needed relief for the Sailors and
Marines of the 24th MEU(SOC) who, alone, had raised 1,100 tents in 10 days.

     Another capability of critical importance throughout PROVIDE COMFORT was
the presence of the U.S. State Department Disaster Assistance Relief Team
headed by Fred Cuny, a former Marine.  This team was critical in helping
coordinate the actions of the many multinational government and
nongovernmental organizations that played a role in the operation.  Bolstered
by years of expertise in such matters, Cuny was invaluable in prosecuting a
humanitarian campaign that ultimately relocated 500,000 Kurds in 60 days.   
24th MEU(SOC)'s MEU Service Support Group (MSSG-24), commanded by LtCol
Richard T. Kohl, also showed its mettle early on by installing a reverse
osmosis water purification unit and establishing medical/dental civic action
projects in Zakhu.  Almost overnight, the local hospital sprang to operating
capability.  Coalition engineers sought to restore electricity and water to a
city that had been without for months.  Stores slowly reopened and people once
again took to the streets. (see "Pushing Logistics to the Limit" insert).
These


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                                   U.S. MARINES IN THE PERSIAN GULF, 1990-1991


initiatives were key in convincing the citizens of Zakhu that this was an
army, perhaps the first in memory, that only meant them goodwill.

     It didn't take long for the message to reach the mountains.  Local
community leaders and Pesh Merge chiefs began arriving in Zakhu to verify for
themselves the changes underway and to give proper guidance to their people in
the mountains.  The allies referred to Zakhu and its growing refugee camp to
the east as the coalition security zone.  As the demarche noted, it was to be
free of visible weapons, rules which were meant to apply to Kurds as well as
the Iraqi Army.

     At first, only a trickle of refugees dared to leave the camps to begin
the trip back to Zakhu.  Soon, however, as news of a secure city inside Iraq
spread to the mountains, many residents slowly began to return to their former
homes.  A large number of refugees, however, still refused to budge from their
hilltop havens.  They were waiting to see what coalition forces would do next.

     As Zakhu was being repopulated, coalition leaders decided that the next
move should be to the east.  Already, British and French forces had probed in
that direction and plans to extend the zone eastward were put into effect.
First, 45th Commando pushed to the town of Batufa, a small but strategically
important city, then onto the airfield at Sirsenk, another important
objective, and finally to the city of Al Amadiyah, a veritable fortress dating
back some 3,000 years: this became the eastern limit of what was referred to
as the British sector under the 3d Commando Brigade, commanded by BGen A.M.
Keeling, OBE.  Again, the instruction to the Iraqis via the Military
Coordination Committee was clear and unequivocal--back off and let us do our
job.  Compliance occurred shortly thereafter.

     One area that received special consideration was Saddam Hussein's palace
complex, which was a series of partially completed mansions intended for use
by Iraq's elite.  These modern structures, erected on choice properties, were
guarded by elements of the Iraqi army.  Iraqi negotiators did not want
coalition forces to take possession of these properties and an agreement was
reached that allowed Iraq to retain control of the palaces, maintain a small
numerically controlled security force on the grounds, and that coalition
forces would not enter the properties.

     Of far greater value to coalition forces, however, was the airfield at
Sirsenk.  The airfield was a DESERT STORM-damaged runway, which, when
repaired, could accommodate C-130 aircraft.  The airfield was being looked at
as the key supply point for JTF-B in northern Iraq.  Soldiers, Sailors, and
Airmen worked feverishly for six days to repair the damaged runway.  By 14
May, the airfield was operational, and a key logistical forward base in Iraq
had been established.

     Another key element in PROVIDE COMFORT's logistical network involved
Marines and Sailors from the 3d Force Service Support Group (FSSG), which was
based with III Marine Expeditionary Force on okinawa.  Early in the operation
it became apparent that additional skills resident in the landing support
battalion of an FSSG would be needed.  Consequently, a request was sent from
CTF headquarters asking for two companies to meet combat service support
requirements.  As the flow of relief supplies grew, the need for this unit
became


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ANTHOLOGY AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY


greater.  In response, Contingency Marine Air-Ground Task Force 1-91 (CMAGTF
1-91), under the command of LtCol Robert L. Bailey, was formed and flown in
theater from Okinawa, setting up initially at Silopi.  CMAGTF 1-91 organized
CSS detachments that were spread out over the entire CTF operating area.
Throughout the operation, CMAGTF 1-91's element remained headquartered in
Silopi, providing combat service support detachments to various nodes in the
relief supply network that had been established.

     The expansion of our security zone, however, was still incomplete.
Coalition forces continued to press eastward, beyond M Amadiyah.  French
forces, under the command of BGen Xavier Prevost, pushed out to the town of
Suri, which was to become the easternmost point of advance for the allies. 
The famous 8th Regiment Parachutiste d'Infanterie de Marine, reinforced with
medical and humanitarian capabilities (not to mention a field bakery capable
of producing 20,000 loafs of bread per day), formed the centerpiece of the
French sector.

     By this time, the skies of northern Iraq were becoming crowded.  French
Pumas, British Sea Kings and Gazelles, Dutch Alouettes, Italian and Spanish
Hueys, Spanish CH-47s, and American transport, cargo, and attack helicopters
of every type and variety contributed heavily to the humanitarian and security
missions.  The 4th Brigade of the 3d Infantry Division, commanded by Col Butch
Whitehead, USA, reported for duty on 26 April.  This maneuver element gave Gen
Garner the "eyes" he needed--day and night--to see exactly what the Iraqi Army
was up to in the south.  To this day, these units still patrol the skies of
the coalition zone, reminding both Kurds and Iraqis that there will be no
repeat of last winter's human tragedy.

     By 10 May 1991, the coalition security zone, from east to west, was 160
kilometers in length and was secured by the physical presence of allied
forces.  This was an important point for the Kurds who maintained that they
would only return to those areas that were physically occupied by coalition
forces.  As dramatic as it was, the expansion of the zone to the east did not
have the desired effect of launching a human exodus from the camps back into
Iraq.  By now, however, the reason was becoming clear.  The majority of
refugees in Turkey came from the city of Dahuk, the provincial capital located
40 kilometers south of the allies security zone.  Kurds were willing to use
resettlement camps as temporary way stations en route to their former homes,
but they were unwilling to accept these camps as a permanent solution.  Thus,
moving towards this city became the key to resolving the refugee problem in
southern Turkey where approximately 350,000 refugees still remained.

     In early May, overflights of Dahuk revealed that the city was abandoned
except for elements of the Iraqi Army.  During normal times, Dahuk is a
bustling city of 350,000, modern by contrast to most other villages or cities
in the security zone.  Two major roads intersect just west of the city, one
going to Zakhu, the other towards Al Amadiyah.  Built for the efficient
movement of Iraq's army, these roadways were also the economic lifeline of the
region.

     The remaining refugees in the mountains were getting restless, waiting
and watching for any sign that coalition forces would move south.  On the 12th
of


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                                   U.S. MARINES IN THE PERSIAN GULF, 1990-1991


May, perhaps celebrating their new found freedom, 1,500 Kurds demonstrated in
Zakbu calling for allies to move towards the city of Dahuk.

     Soon after, JTF-B ordered the 24th MEU(SOC), reinforced by the 3d
Battalion, 325th Regiment Airborne Combat Team, to move south and establish
checkpoints to the west and east of the city at the edge of the allied
security zone (see "BLT 2/8 Moves South" insert).  Ongoing negotiations
between the Iraqis and the Military Coordination Committee resulted in an
agreement that would allow humanitarian and logistical forces to enter the
city along with United Nations (U.N.) forces and nongovernment organizations.
Combat forces were to advance no further beyond their present positions.  In
return, Iraq agreed to withdraw all armed forces and secret police from Dahuk
and take up new positions 15 kilometers to the south of the city.  On 20 May,
a small convoy of coalition vehicles entered Dahuk and established a forward
command post in an empty hotel in the heart of the city.  The security zone
now extended 160 kilometers east to west and 60 kilometers north to south
below the Turkish-Iraqi border.

     Although there was considerable doubt as to whether this would be enough
to attract refugees from the camps, the presence of an airborne combat team to
the east of Dahuk and BLT 2/8 to the west, the patrols of the 18th Military
Police Brigade throughout JTF-B's main supply routes, the increasing
capabilities of Italian and Spanish forces around Zakhu, and the presence of
British Dutch and French forces nearby, all seemed to convince Kurdish leaders
that the time was right to repopulate the security zone.  Thousands of Kurds
began leaving their temporary shelters heading for Dahuk.

     All available transportation was used during this movement.  Many
refugees walked, but once on the roads and footpaths, they helped one another
using cars, mule-driven carts, buses, tractors, motorcycles--whatever could be
found.  Coalition forces sent teams of mechanics and fuel trucks into the
mountains to provide assistance to those attempting to return home.
Intermediary way stations were set up by civil affairs units under the command
of Col John Easton, USMCR, JTF-B's chief of staff, to provide food, water, and
medical assistance at various points along the journey.

     By 25 May, the movement of refugees reached its peak.  55,200 refugees
sought temporary refuge in what had become three camps in the valley east of
Zakhu.  The activity was feverish, but incredibly well controlled.  People who
had never dreamed of an operation of this magnitude were thrust together to
make critical decisions.  They overcame language, cultural, and ethnic
barriers.  Nongovernmental workers from all parts of the world joined with
military forces to make this effort successful.  Even U.N. representatives
joined in the race against time to get the Kurdish people out of the
mountains.  By 2 June, the U.N. had taken over the administration of both
refugee camps from coalition forces, which by this time numbered over 13,000
personnel.

     At the 90-day mark, it was clear that coalition objectives were achieved.
Kurdish refugees were out of the mountains and either back in their villages
of origin, on their way there, or in camps built by coalition forces.  In the
Mediterranean, the USS THEODORE ROOSEVELT (CVN 71), which had flown air


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ANTHOLOGY AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY


cover over northern Iraq for much of PROVIDE COMFORT, was relieved on station
by the USS FORRESTAL (CV 59).  At Silopi, Turkey, the Combined Support
Command, under the direction of BGen Hal Burch, USA, was now functioning as
the logistical pivot for all supplies flowing into Iraq.

     On 8 June, JTF-A was deactivated and BGen Potter's troops began their
retrograde out of Turkey.  On 12 June, the Civil Affairs Command was also
deactivated.

     The remaining days of coalition presence in northern Iraq were devoted to
continuing to stabilize the region and reassuring Kurdish leaders that
although coalition forces would soon be leaving, this act would not signify a
change in the resolve of the allied forces to support the Kurdish people.  It
was also a period of planning for the allies, who were now tasked with
retrograding their forces and material from northern Iraq.  At this time the
unannounced date for coalition forces to be out of Iraq was 15 July.  A second
demarche was drawn up and presented to the Iraqi government outlining the type
of conduct coalition forces expected of Iraq in the future.  In essence, its
terms were as follows:

     Iraqi fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft were not to fly north of the 36th
parallel, which is approximately 60 kilometers south of Dahuk.

     The Iraqi Army and secret police were not to enter the security zone.

     A coalition ground combat force, composed of forces representing several
nations, would be maintained across the border in Silopi, Turkey.

     Coalition aircraft, both fixed- and rotary-wing, would continue to patrol
the skies above the security zone.

     The Military Coordination Committee would continue to monitor the
security zone and Iraqi compliance of the terms of the demarche.

     In the ensuing days, coalition forces continued their drawdown.  On the
morning of 15 July, Marines from BLT 2/8 along with paratroopers from 3/325
Airborne Combat Team were the last combat elements to withdraw from northern
Iraq.  In the early afternoon, the American flag was lowered for the last time
at JFT-B headquarters at Zakhu.  Minutes later, U.S. military leaders, who had
entered Iraq on 20 April, walked across the bridge over the Habur River,
leaving Iraq for the last time.  Two Air Force F-16s followed by two A-10s
made low passes over the bridge as the group made its way across the bridge. 
On 19 July, the 24th MEU(SOC), now back aboard amphibious shipping watched as
the city of Iskenderun and the Turkish horizon slipped into the sea.  After a
six-month deployment, it too was finally on its way home.

THE AUTHOR WISHES TO THANK SSGT LEE J. TIBBETS FOR HIS ASSISTANCE IN PREPARING
THIS ARTICLE.
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                                   U.S. MARINES IN THE PERSIAN GULF, 1990-1991



Into a Sea of Refugees: HMM-264


by LtCol Joseph A. Byrtus, Jr.


     Small camp sites dotted the countryside below as the aircraft followed
the steep valley northeastward.  From 500 feet above ground level, the camp at
Isikveren was overwhelming with 80,000 starving and freezing people tightly
congregated on the steep mountain side in a patchwork of garish blue, white,
and orange tents.  A pall of smoke from thousands of small cooking fires hung
perhaps 20 feet above the camp in a thin, neat layer.  Because every square
foot of land suitable for landing was occupied by refugees, the Super
Stallions had to land one at a time in one of the few level areas not blocked
by the tall, defoliated trees that dotted the camp.  As the lead aircraft
transitioned to landing from a high hover, a landing zone was cleared below as
people ran from the rotor wash, followed by their tents and meager belongings. 
once safely on deck, the crew inside the aircraft attempted to unload as
rapidly as possible so that the next aircraft could land.  Initially, the
crowd was kept back by the rotor wash of the aircraft.

     Within moments, however, the crowd surrounding the CH-53E had doubled or
tripled in size.  As the first pallet was pushed from the ramp, a crowd of
10,000 or more rushed the aircraft from all sides in a desperate dash for food
and water.  Fearing the results of a mob scene at the rear of his aircraft,
the aircraft commander lifted into a low hover and slowly air-taxied its way
forward, temporarily blowing the Kurds back and clearing an area below the
aircraft for the remaining pallets to fall.  The second and third aircraft
followed the first's lead and delivered their loads from a low hover too. once
this was accomplished all three helos departed the refugee camp and headed
back to Silopi to recover the MEU commanding officer and his ground combat
commander for the return trip to the USS GUADALCANAL.  The return flight,
however, was diverted to Incerlik, Turkey, for the evening as reduced
visibility precluded a return to the USS GUADALCANAL.



BLT 2/8 Moves South


by LtCol Tony L. Corwin


     The beginning of May began as busy as the last two weeks of April.
Companies E and F were each tasked to provide one rifle platoon with either a
combined antiarmor team or a fast attack vehicle team attached to replace
allied forces controlling roadblocks to the west and south of the city, as
these forces prepared to move east.  Company G was tasked with providing a
platoon for security purposes at the Zakhu hospital.  Our light armored
infantry (LAI)


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ANTHOLOGY AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY


platoon continued its reconnaissance along the southern portion of our main
supply route.  The heavy LAI section, consisting of two 25mm light armored
vehicles (LAV-25s), an antitank variant (LAV-AT), a logistical variant (LAV-
L), and the 105mm howitzer platoon from H Battery, was attached to the 3d
Royal Marine Commando Brigade to conduct operations in the central and eastern
areas of northern Iraq.

     As negotiations over the size of the security zone continued between CTF
PROVIDE COMFORT and Iraqi officials, coalition forces focused their attention
on expanding the security zone to the east and south.  The 3d Commando, with
the 3d Battalion, 325th Regiment Airborne Combat Team attached, and the Dutch
Royal Marines were assigned an area of responsibility to the east while the
BLT prepared to move south.

     On the morning of 4 May, a platoon from Company E relieved Company F at
the southern roadblock, allowing it to begin its movement southward.  Company
F was mounted in assault amphibious vehicles and reinforced by one LAI section
and two combined antiarmor teams, with an 81mm mortar platoon and H Battery
providing direct fire support.

     Each time the Company moved forward, it forced an Iraqi company ahead of
it to withdraw.  Roadblocks were also established along the route to prevent
any unauthorized movement north toward Zakhu.

     After reaching its final destination, an area five kilometers northwest
of Summayl, Company G was inserted by helicopter to strengthen Company F's
position.  With sufficient forces forward and a safe zone cleared north to
Zakhu, BLT 2/8's command element and Company H moved south on 9 May to Muqbal
where they established a fire support base.

     This pushed logistics to the limit.  Both military and commercial
vehicles had to be employed to keep supplies moving from Zakhu to Muqbal.  To
lessen this strain, the BLT employed a number of civilian refuelers, but
primarily made use of Battery H's organic five-ton truck assets.

     While this consolidation of forces continued in the Muqbal area, plans
were developed for an unopposed and opposed seizure of Dahuk, depending on
what circumstances dictated.  Although Iraqi forces remained outside the
30-kilometer buffer they agreed on regarding Zakhu, their continued presence
in the region was still somewhat of a destabilizing factor.  When the decision
was made that BLT 2/8 would push on towards Dahuk, it was assigned the 29th
British Commando artillery battalion and an Italian special forces company.
The British artillery battalion significantly enhanced the BLT's indirect fire
support capability with 3 firing batteries, each with 6 lightweight 105mm
howitzers with ranges extending from 15 to 30 kilometers.  The Italian special
forces company that the BLT received operated and trained with our
reconnaissance and scout sniper platoons.  By incorporating the Italians into
our operations this way, we were capable of maintaining an active
reconnaissance and surveillance presence around Dahuk at all times.

     The BLT remained at the Muqbal fire support base from 9 May to 15 June,
while the city of Dahuk was being resettled by the Kurds.  To provide the
companies relief from static defensive duty, a rotation system was established
to


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                                   U.S. MARINES IN THE PERSIAN GULF, 1990-1991


move units every six days from the forward checkpoint back to Zakhu and Muqbal
for rear area and perimeter security duty.  Companies rotating to Muqbal were
afforded the opportunity to partake in live fire exercises, squad-size
patrols, and in organized athletic events.

     During the last weeks of May, the BLT initiated planning for a phased
retrograde of all units back to Iskenderun, Turkey.  On 1 June, Company H was
the first unit to leave Muqbal.  The company was tasked with providing
security for equipment and cargo at the port facility and assist in the
washdown of BLT vehicles.  For the next two weeks selected equipment,
vehicles, and personnel retrograded to Iskenderun via Silopi.  On 15 June,
responsibility for the BLT sector was transitioned to Italian forces, and the
remaining combat elements of the BLT retrograded to Silopi.  BLT 2/8's mission
was complete.


Pushing Logistics to the Limit: MSSG-24

by LtCol Richard T. Kohl


     Initially, MSSG-24 established a combat service support detachment to the
forward support base it had previously set up at Silopi, Turkey, by mid April.
The task to assist displaced civilians was right up MSSG-24's alley.  The unit
possessed organic motor transport, supply, medical, dental, and engineer
detachments that could easily task organize for such operations, while
simultaneously providing logistics sustainment for the MEU.  From the forward
support base, logistics requirements were moved via helicopter and tactical
vehicle convoy, to logistics control points located in the rear of
forward-deployed units.  Replenishment of depleted stocks from the continental
United States (CONUS) and intratheater sources was continuous.

     Throughout the operation, MSSG-24 provided direct support for 24th
MEU(SOC) and all the other allied forces in JTF-B at one time or another. 
This was due to the fact that most other units involved in PROVIDE COMFORT did
not come with an organic logistical support capability built into them, as the
24th MEU(SOC) did.  As a consequence, the 15 days of logistics sustainability
that Marine doctrine requires an MSSG to prepare for clearly stretched
capabilities to the limit as it had to operate continuously in a
combat-intense environment without much assistance for approximately two to
three weeks and support more units than normally expected to support.  The
MSSG (-) for this operation consisted of 251 Marines and Sailors located more
than 450 miles from the port of Iskenderun. This is believed to be the
furthest inland an entire MSSG has ever been established.


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